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"We need a better system."

How many times have you heard variations of this statement? Perhaps the person making this statement can quantify it. He or she can show you how a process is failing, the amount of effort needed to do simple things, how a feature is unusable, or how the lack controls produce inconsistent results. Indeed, this person may have already come up with a solution that solves this problem. If others in the organization share the opinion, then problem is recognized, and it merits resolution. In other circumstances, we might find that others in the organization have different views on the problem, and some may not think it is a problem at all. As we communicate with different people, it will rapidly become apparent that we need some representation of the problem. This representation can be used to communicate the problem, establish different perspectives, and also to come up with outline different solutions.

This section provides guidelines for making representations of business information. These representations are then used to derive business systems realized through optimal solution choices. The challenge is to create a rationalization around what we consider optimal, and to create a system that adds value to the business as a whole. This isn't as easy as it sounds. Let's consider the example of a warehouse.

Let's consider a warehouse management system built to support an online store. Customers shop online, make their choices, and then order some items. The order is then fulfilled by the warehouse, which dispatches the items with a logistics provider to the customer. Customers would like their items delivered quickly and in perfect condition. The management would like the cost of managing the warehouse to be as low as possible. The operator who works in the warehouse would like to work efficiently. The warehouse manager would like to standardize tasks so that it is easier to manage the high turnover of operators. The logistics provider would like the warehouse to consolidate all of their shipments to similar destinations. Finding an optimal solution means finding the optimal balance between these perspectives, some of which are not compatible with each other.

Creating business representations provide a foundation for ensuring that all parties within an organization are on the same page. A decision-making process to select the optimal solution would require an assessment of the business problem, and this is how business representations should be used. The following are some of the business representations covered in this section.
- An explanation of the business situation, illustrating the circumstances in which the problem occurs, and situation's consequences (problem statement)
- A representation of the processes involving the problem
- A representation of the things (people, products, infrastructure, equipment, etc.) that are affected by the problem

Proposed solutions can be realized completely by a human agent, through a collaboration between a human agent and an information system, or completely by an information system. A proposed solution can either be part of an existing system, or it could result in a completely new system. In either of these cases, developing a business representation will help realizing the optimal solution.

What is a System?

Systems are an inter-disciplinary term, and have different definitions in different fields. Electrical engineers build power systems. Integrated circuit designers build electronics systems. Doctors study human systems, such as the nervous system or digestive system, and apply that knowledge to treat individuals. The definition of a system, if it is cover all these scenarios, would be a set of elements that work together to accomplish a defined objective.

Information systems consist of people and technology working together to extract, transmit, store, retrieve, manipulate, and display information. Effective information systems are designed with an understanding of how users interact with them, and how systems interact with each other. The formal boundaries of a system are defined through the combined experiences of those who use the system. A designer has to understand the environment where the system would exist, and needs and expectations of the users of the systems. The best IT systems just seem to "fit" into their environment, where users intuitively grasp their role and use them as if they have always been using them. This section provides some examples of how users experience systems in a modern world.

The modern urban dweller interacts and experiences different systems numerous times in the course of a work day. A person wakes up to a room where the electrical appliances are run on power provided by an energy provider. Each electrical appliance, such as the coffee-maker, is a self-contained system with a dependency on the energy provider, and is contained in a kitchen. The plumbing in the bathroom is connected to a sewage system. Public transporation systems provide the means to get the person to work. People interact in different ways with these systems, and their expectations are shaped by their experiences with these systems. Let's consider some examples of how user experiences define systems.

"The cup of coffee was just right this morning."

In its lifetime, a good coffee-maker will produce several cups of coffee. Given consistent inputs (water, beans, power, filters), most coffee machines will produce consistent results. Drinking a cup of coffee is how the user experiences the coffee, and the nature of the experiencde can vary from day to day. The quality of the coffee is a very important factor in defining the experience, but several other aspects influence the user's experience on any given day: whether the kitchen was in a mess or was in a pristine state that morning; whether the person was in a rush or had plenty of time to drink the coffee; whether the person drank the coffee alone or in the company of others. A cup of coffee being just right is dependent on all of these factors. The utilization of the machine is beyond the control of a designer, but the designer can influence how users will interact with the system. For machines that provide low volumes of coffee, the user can manually feed the input materials (water, beans), and the dispensing area can contain room for a single cup. For machines that produce higher volumes, the water supply can be plugged directly into the plumbing system, larger containers can be used to feed the machine, and the dispensing area can contain several slots for different sizes of containers.

Fig.1: A coffee maker

The System: A machine that can product a hot cup of coffee.

The User: A person who wants some coffee, and perhaps depending on how early it is, sorely needs it.

Roles: Coffee-drinker (the user whose perspective we are considering), Coffee-Maker (a machine in this case).

The Environment: Typically used in a domestic environment with other household appliances.

Dependent system(s): Water and Power supply, Waste management system.

Service Expectations: Given fixed inputs, the machine should produce a hot cup of coffee within 2 minutes.

The experience: The coffee machine is located in the kitchen. Coffee cups are located in a nearby storage area. The coffee machine will dispense black coffee, and the user will add milk and sugar to taste.

Exceptional scenarios (some undesirable): Input materials not available (coffee, milk, sugar, water, electricity);machine does not work as expected;machine is used beyond its capacity.

Unbalanced forces (beyond the system's scope, but influences the experience): The kitchen is dirty; The person is in a rush; The person is not have the pleasure of regular company.

 

"The 8:04 bus from Main Street was on time this morning."

What is the "8:04" bus in this sentence? The statement seems to imply that the "8:04 bus" is a physical object. However, every morning, one of the several buses within the city's fleet can be the "8:04 bus" from Main Street. The bus drivers can be different each morning. We continue to experience the 8:04 bus in a consistently as any of the buses or drivers will follow some similar patterns. The buses are usually the same color. The drivers usually wear the same uniforms. The bus usually follows the same route and should leave the bus stop located in Main Street at 8:04 every morning.

Fig.2: A bus arriving at a bus stop

The "8:04 bus from Main Street" follows some common patterns, and these common patterns define a system for the passengers who board the bus at Main Street. For passengers that board the bus at the next stop, the bus becomes the "8:10 bus from Harley Street". Each group of passengers experience parts of a more comprehensive logistics system, but the passengers do not need to understand the entire system to use its services. It is sufficient for passengers to understand the concepts of timetables, bus routes, that buses that travel on a route have a bus number, and that a fare is charged for the transporation service. The bus being "on time" this morning indicates expectations from passengers about the quality of service provided by the bus: The bus should not leave before 8:04 am; the bus should halt at Main Street for a sufficient duration, giving passengers time to board the bus; the bus should not be late. The expectations on the service quality isn't usually something a public transport company provides. Usually, it amounts to "we'll try our best, and we hope that is good enough". In most cases, their best effort is usually good enough. The duration a person is willing to wait for the bus is entirely up to the person and their situation.

The System: A public transportation system.

The User: A person who wants to travel from a start point to destination within a fixed period of time.

Roles: Passenger (the user whose perspective we are considering), Driver, Conductor (role can be performed by the same person who is the driver provided a low number of passengers).

The Environment: A public area where any member that can pay the bus fare can use the logistics services offered by the transportation system.

Dependent system(s): Road network, Ticketing systems, Payment Systems, Energy Systems, Vehicle Support Systems, GPS Systems.

Service Expectations: The bus should leave a bus stop at the scheduled departure time. The bus should arrive a few moments before the schedule time at the bus stop. The bus should hat at the bus stop for a sufficient duration.

The experience: A passenger waits for the bus at the bus stop. The bus arrives a few moments before the scheduled departure time. The bus stops, and the passenger boards the bus. The passenger can either purchase a ticket, show the bus driver an existing ticket or bus pass, or be exempted from requiring a ticket. The passenger finds a seat, and sits down for the duration of the journey. The passenger arrives at their destination at the scheduled time, and disembarks from the bus.

Exceptional scenarios (some undesirable): The passenger is late, and arrives to miss the bus; the passenger is late, and just catches the bus (a very satisfactory experience); the bus is late; the bus driver fails to stop at the bus stop; the passenger does not wait for the bus and uses an alternative; the bus is full and cannot accomodate any more passengers; the passenger does not have any form of payment for the bus; the bus driver is unable to accept payment due to failure of the payment system; the passenger cannot find a seat and has to stand; the passenger is injured during the journey; the bus has an accident; the bus has a malfunction and stops functioning completely; a component of the bus has a malfunction (e.g. the airconditioning stops working); the bus driver is incapacitated during the journey; the bus driver deviates from the route (perhaps because he is not familiar with the route); there is an altercation in the bus between people in the bus; the bus arrives late in the destination.

"What should the system do?"

Within an enterprise, a great amount of responsibility rests on the shoulders of a system designer. The system designer specifies what a system should do, and provides an outline of a system's functionality. The system designer may be specifying an IT system, but directly impacts the people that work with the system. For operational systems, a design of a system directly influences the daily work of an employee, and indirectly influences the culture of the organization. Well-designed systems become a valuable tool in the hands of their users, and contribute towards the business's increased competitiveness. Poorly-designed systems tend to get in the way of their users, require redesign if new business models are introduced, and hinder the growth of a business.

System models provide a designer with the means of specifying and communicating a functional solution. It is important to bear in mind that a functional solution can be realized in several ways, and a system model should not feature technical considerations.

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